Montreal, Canada · 19 December 2022 — Delegates from nearly 190 nations gaveled through the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) in the early hours of 19 December 2022, concluding the 15th Conference of Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (COP15). The agreement, reached after two weeks of marathon negotiations at the Palais des congrès de Montréal, sets out four long-term goals for 2050 and 23 action targets for 2030 aimed at halting and reversing biodiversity loss.
The framework's centrepiece — Target 3, widely known as '30x30' — commits parties to ensuring that by 2030, at least 30 per cent of terrestrial, inland water, coastal, and marine areas are effectively conserved and managed through ecologically representative, well-connected, and equitably governed systems of protected areas. The target explicitly recognises Indigenous and traditional territories where applicable, a provision that Indigenous advocacy groups fought hard to include.
The Road to Montreal
COP15 was originally scheduled to take place in Kunming, China, in 2020 but was delayed four times due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The conference was ultimately split: a partial session was held in Kunming in October 2021, and the final negotiating session was relocated to Montreal — the seat of the CBD Secretariat — in December 2022, with China retaining the presidency. Canada served as co-host.
The framework replaces the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, a set of 20 goals adopted in 2010 in Nagoya, Japan, that were largely unmet by the time they expired in 2020. Only six of the Aichi targets were partially achieved, and none were fully met, according to the Global Biodiversity Outlook 5 assessment. The failure of the Aichi framework loomed over the Montreal negotiations, with parties under pressure to produce a more ambitious and actionable successor.
Key Targets and Commitments
The 23 targets are organised into three categories: reducing threats to biodiversity (Targets 1–8), meeting people's needs through sustainable use and benefit-sharing (Targets 9–13), and tools and solutions for implementation and mainstreaming (Targets 14–23).
| Target | Commitment |
|---|---|
| Target 2 | Restore 30% of all degraded terrestrial, inland water, coastal, and marine ecosystems by 2030 |
| Target 3 | Conserve 30% of land, inland water, coastal, and marine areas by 2030 ('30x30') |
| Target 7 | Reduce pollution risks, including reducing excess nutrients, pesticide risks, and plastic pollution |
| Target 15 | Require large transnational companies and financial institutions to monitor, assess, and disclose biodiversity impacts |
| Target 18 | Identify and eliminate, phase out, or reform incentives and subsidies harmful to biodiversity by at least $500 billion per year |
| Target 19 | Mobilise at least $200 billion per year in biodiversity finance by 2030 |
Finance and Implementation
Finance proved one of the most contentious issues in Montreal. Developing countries, led by the African Group and Brazil, pressed for a dedicated biodiversity finance facility and substantially increased funding flows. Developed countries, including the European Union and Japan, favoured working through existing institutions like the Global Environment Facility (GEF).
The final compromise established the GBF Fund, to be operated by the GEF, with a new dedicated trust fund specifically for biodiversity. The framework calls for at least $200 billion per year in total biodiversity-related international finance by 2030, including $20 billion annually flowing from developed to developing countries by 2025, rising to at least $30 billion by 2030.
A key implementation mechanism is the requirement for all parties to update their National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans (NBSAPs) in line with the framework, with national targets more ambitious than the global ones where appropriate. The framework also establishes a monitoring framework with headline indicators to track progress, addressing a major weakness of the Aichi targets, which lacked robust accountability mechanisms.
Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities
The role of Indigenous peoples and local communities (IPLC) was one of the most debated topics at COP15. Indigenous representatives and civil society organisations pushed for explicit recognition of Indigenous rights and territories within the 30x30 target, warning that fortress conservation approaches — which exclude people from protected areas — have historically violated Indigenous rights.
The final text of Target 3 includes language ensuring that conserved areas are 'equitably governed' and 'recognising and respecting the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities, including over their traditional territories.' This was hailed by Indigenous advocates as a step forward, though some noted the language could have been stronger.
"The inclusion of Indigenous peoples and local communities in the text of Target 3 is a significant improvement over the Aichi targets. However, the real test will be in implementation — whether governments respect Indigenous rights and governance systems on the ground."
Digital Sequence Information and Benefit-Sharing
Another contentious issue was digital sequence information (DSI) on genetic resources — the genetic data stored in databases that underpins biotechnology and pharmaceutical research. Developing countries argued that companies using DSI derived from their genetic resources should share benefits, while developed countries and industry raised concerns about open-access research.
The agreement in Target 13 establishes a multilateral mechanism for benefit-sharing from DSI, including a global fund. The specifics of the mechanism are to be developed by the COP's subsidiary body on implementation and finalised at COP16, scheduled for 2024 in Cali, Colombia.
Limitations and Criticisms
The GBF is not legally binding — it operates as a framework that guides national policy through NBSAPs. Several parties and observers noted that the agreement lacks enforcement mechanisms, and its success will depend on political will at the national level.
The Democratic Republic of Congo formally objected to the adoption, arguing that the finance commitments were insufficient, though the gavel was brought down nonetheless. Some conservation scientists cautioned that the 30x30 target, while ambitious, focuses on quantity over quality and could lead to the creation of 'paper parks' — protected areas in name only, without effective management or funding.
Looking Ahead
The adoption of the Kunming-Montreal GBF represents the most significant global biodiversity agreement since the Aichi Targets in 2010. Whether it succeeds where its predecessor largely failed will depend on the speed and depth of national implementation, the adequacy of finance flows, and the strength of the monitoring and review mechanisms.
For African nations, many of which are biodiversity-rich but resource-constrained, the framework's finance commitments are critical. The $30 billion annual target for developing-country finance, while substantial, remains modest compared to the estimated $700 billion annual biodiversity financing gap identified by the CBD.
The next milestone is COP16 in Cali, Colombia, where parties will review initial progress on NBSAP updates, finalise the DSI benefit-sharing mechanism, and assess the operationalisation of the GBF Fund.
Sources:
- UN Environment Programme (UNEP), Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, December 2022
- Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Decision adopted by COP15, 19 December 2022
- Carbon Brief, COP15: Key outcomes agreed at UN biodiversity summit in Montreal, 20 December 2022
- IISD Earth Negotiations Bulletin, Summary of the UN Biodiversity Conference, 19 December 2022
- IUCN, IUCN welcomes adoption of Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, 19 December 2022
- Government of Canada, COP15: A historic outcome for nature, 19 December 2022
FIRAT Editorial Board
Institutional Research Desk · Foresight Institute of Research and Translation
The collective editorial and research translation board of FIRAT, synthesising peer-reviewed evidence, policy briefs, and division milestones across our seven foundational research pillars.
